From models to cognitive architectures
Today’s AI systems typically combine learned representations with inference, retrieval, memory and software tools. Transformer-based foundation models process tokens across language and other modalities, while retrieval-augmented generation grounds responses in external knowledge.
Long-horizon agents add planning loops, tool execution, persistent context, access controls and observation of outcomes. This increases usefulness but also expands failure modes: error propagation, tool misuse, instruction injection, hallucination and unsafe autonomy.

